INDIA UNDERGROUND

S. A. CRAVEN

[It is hoped that the mountaineering fraternity in India also takes to what is popularly known as Pot-holing in Western countries, and, therefore, I make no apology for publishing a most painstakingly prepared article by Mr. Craven, in expectation of making a start. Even so, the information is likely to be of considerable interest to geographers and geologists. —Ed.]

WRITING over 40 years ago, Cammiade (1927) commented on the difficulty of finding caves to explore and suggested that someone should search among the local gazeteers and compile a list of Indian caves. This had been my intention until I saw the rows and rows of these volumes on the shelves of the Indian Institute Library in Oxford! I had also hoped to describe some of my own observations, but this is impossible because I was twice refused permission to visit Chakrata (U.P.).

This review is therefore little more than a summary of the observations of others, and is as reliable as the sources quoted. Previous accounts have been written by Glennie (1950, 195 kr, b, c, d, 1952a, 1956, 1959), a former Director of the Survey of India, but he never completed the series.

Most of the caves were not visited by spelaeologists, and may well be rock shelters or artefact. They have been recorded by geologists, zoologists, archaeologists and topographers who may not have distinguished between true caves in which there is permanent darkness, and rock shelters for which a light is not required. The only spelaeological writers appear to have been Glennie and Leakey (1951). Even in the leisurely days of the last century, a Director of the Geological Survey complained that if his officers explored all the caves they found, they would have little time for what he considered to be more important tasks.

I have deliberately omitted references to the many rock temples which are especially numerous in Western India, because they are artefact and of no spelaeological interest.

The account, therefore, contains many omissions—such a list can never be complete, and is doubtless erroneous in places. It is offered in the hope that some readers will be stimulated to end l he neglect of Indian spelaeology and to explore further the underworld. I will be delighted to receive corrections! additions and further references at the address below.*

  1. ASSAM
  2. BIHAR
  3. KAIMUR HILLS
  4. EASTERN GHATS
  5. SOUTH INDIA
  6. MYSORE
  7. ANDHRA PRADESH
  8. MAHARASHTRA
  9. MADHYA PRADESH
  10. GUJARAT
  11. UTTAR PRADESH
  12. HIMACHAL PRADESH
  13. KASHMIR
  14. Conclusions
  15. Acknowledgements
  16. References
  17. Appendix

 

 

ASSAM

KHASI AND JAINTIA HILLS

Oldham (1858) mentions limestone cliffs, caves, shake-holes and underground streams of which the 4 most remarkable' are near Mawmluh (91° 42', 25° 160 and near Mawsmai (91° 44', 25° 140 on opposite sides of the ridge. This limestone is seen in the adjoining district and lower down the hillside. Much is exposed at Tingwai (91° 44', 25° 110, east of the Walingtia River, at Lakadong (92° 16', 25° 11') and on the banks of the Harry River, north of Pichadar Poonji.

A member of the Himalayan Club (Allsup, 1934) visited Nongkrem which he translated as, 4 village of caves . He did not mention any caves there but did explore the caves of Mawsmai and of Mawmluh. The Mawsmai Cave is 20 minutes' walk from the village, SW., beyond the ropeway. The right-hand passage leads to a chamber after a few feet, and the left-hand passage continues ‘a good way if the explorer is prepared to swim.

The Mawmluh Cave is found by turning left over the grass short of the village, and by following the stream down to the two entrances. The passage is several hundred yards long, leading to a pitch ; but he found no passage to the resurgences which emerge in several places in the jungle on the south side of the hill and which 4 abound in passages . If it were not for the discrepancy between sink and rising, this description would fit the long cave visited by Lindberg (1949).

Lindberg visited a cave 3 kilometres from Cherrapunji and 100 metres from the motor road, whence there was a path to the entrance in the stream bed. There was an alternative entrance above and to the right of the rising. The cave is 1,357 metres above sea level, wet and has side passages. He called it the 4 Maosmai Cave' but wrote later (Lindberg, 1960) that it was not the Mawsmai Cave. It must be at least 300 metres long, because Manfredi (1954) described three specimens of Assamodesmus lindbergi found that distance from the entrance.

Lindberg also saw a dry cave, several metres long, a little further to the south, but found there nothing of interest.

Ringwood (1876) described the Lakadong Cave as having a large chamber (70 ft. high X 30 ft. wide X 30 ft. long), leading to an even larger chamber (80 ft. X 56 ft. X 60 ft.). There was then a passage (40 ft. X 30 ft.) descending at an angle of 30°. He did not follow this passage beyond 200 feet because the locals refused to accompany him.

Allen (1906a) reported an ‘interesting cave' at Rupnath, 2 miles from the inspection bungalow to Syndhai, 4 miles north of Jaintia- pur on the Jowai path.

Other references to these caves have been made by zoologists. Collinge (1916) described Cubaris cavernosas, found ‘in caves near Cherrapunji, c. 4,000 ft.', and Burmoniscus kempi from the 'Maosmai Cave, Cherrapunji, c. 4,000 ft.'.

Another zoologist was Chopard (1916, 1919) who described specimens from the Maosmai Cave. He later (Chopard, 1921) discussed two new species of Orthoptera from the Rupmath Cave, and in a subsequent paper (Chopard, 1924) mentioned a pair of Diestrammenae from the Lakadong Cave.

The relevant half inch maps are sheets of 78 O/SE and 83 C/SW. The only caves marked are near Mawmluh and Mawsmai.

GARO HILLS

The Siju Cave, alias Dobakhol or the Bat Cave, is the only one reported from the Garo Hills. It is marked on the half inch map of 78 K/SE at 90° 41', 25° 21', on the right bank of the Simsang River between the villages of Upper and Lower Siju. The entrance is 950 feet above sea level, in a cliff 85 feet above the dry season water level. There is reputed to be an exit 30 miles to the northwest near Tura (Allen, 1906Z?). The description by Kemp and Chopra (1924) and the work they performed there was 45 years ahead of their time.

The first explorer of the cave was an unknown Army officer, probably during the antepenultimate decade of the last century. Mr. T. D. LaTouche penetrated 3,900 feet in 1881 and made extensive notes in his diary which he never published. In 1919, Mr. R. Friel made a small collection of its fauna. Messrs. Kemp and Chopra spent the first two months of 1922 at the cave. They measured air currents and air and water temperatures ; collected lock specimens and 102 differing animal species ; took photo - graphs and surveyed the place-an exercise which has never been repeated in India.

There is no point in describing the topography in detail because it had changed between the visits of LaTouche and of Kemp and Chopra, and nearly half a century of regular flooding will have wrought further changes. The cave is 3,900 feet from entrance to explored end, being a series of vast chambers connected by passages and boulder piles. Nowhere was the roof lower than 3i feet above the floor. There are side passages, and several influent streams at the far end ; and there may be less water at the entrance than in the deeper parts of the cave.

 

 

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BIHAR

Pascoe (1927) reports that while shaft-sinking for the Noamundi Mine near Jamda, the coolies at a depth of 15 feet broke into a 4-foot high cave. He then postulates that this could explain the hollow sound which is often heard while walking in the area.

 

 

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KAIMUR HILLS

The Kaimur Hills extend about 300 miles south-west to northeast through Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. That part, south of Mirzapur (U.P.), is known for its cave paintings, and has been described by Cockburn and by Drake-Brickman.

Cockburn (1883, 1884) reports that the Kaimur Hills are sand- stones ; caves are uncommon but rock shelters abound. There are caves near Robertsganj (about 50 miles SE. of Mirzapur) including the Temple Mound Cave at Roump, Symbol Cave, Ghat Cave and Lohri Cave. He later (Cockburn, 1889, 1894) described the cave paintings, and the cave of Sorhow.

Drake-Brockman (1911) confirms that the caves are merely rock shelters and records them near Ashtbhuja (82° 30', 25° 10'), Bhuili (83° 03', 25° 060 and Dibhor (82° 18', 24° 420- An anonymous supplement to his work (1935) adds, a cave called Khoh, situated near the Dargah of Makhdum Saheb Chiragh-i- Hind'.

Nelson (1909) has recorded some caves at the Jubbulpore end of the range. In the hills near the village on the other side of the Hiran River from the temples is the cave of Achalnath, said to be 100 feet long. This is at 79° 55', 23° 15', about 13 miles NNW of Jubbulpore. Another cave is near Rupnath, 19 miles from Sihora station, described as a perfect chaos of rocks and pools overshadowed by rugged precipices, 50 feet to 60 feet high, in whose clefts and caverns wild beasts find a quiet refuge.

The Gupteswar Cave (or Suggi Kho) is at 83° 46', 24° 45', in a narrow precipitous glen, 8 miles from Shergarh ; and was described by Mallet (1871) and by O'Malley (1906). It was visited by Glennie (1959) accompanied by Mr. M. N. A. Hashmie who later became Surveyor-General of Pakistan. The entrance (18 ft.X 12 ft.) is marked by a temple. Glennie's exploration was stopped at about 400 feet by foul air, but since he saw a bat flying out through this bad air he concluded that the air was a legacy of the recent pilgrimage and that the cave ought to continue.

 

 

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EASTERN GHATS

Many caves have been reported from these hills, in the districts of Visakhapatnam, Godavari, Kurnool and Cuddapah. The descriptions are often incomplete, which is not surprising since they were not written by pot-holers.

VISAKHAPATNAM DISTRICT

These caves have been recorded by Francis (1907) and by King (1886).

Garugubilli (83° 38', 18° 22') is 5 miles north of Chipurupalle on the Calcutta railway. Two miles to the west is a three-peaked hill in the most northerly, of which Devudukonda is a cave for which a ladder is required.

Guptesvara Cave is on the bank of the Kolab River, 9 miles west of Ramagiri (82° 15', 18° 48'); and is approached by a path through the sal jungle to near the top of a limestone hill, 500 feet higher than the surrounding country. A flight of steps leads to the entrance (9 ft. X8 ft.), from which the cave slopes down into the hill. There are several other caves in this part of the Kolab Valley.

Borra Caves are near the village of that name, 6 miles north of Anantagiri. The village stream descends 300 feet through a series of caverns into the Peddagunda River, and there is at least one dry pot-hole into the system. There are other caves nearby.

The Matsya Gundam (82° 37', 18° 10') is a pool on the Macheru (Fish River) near Matam, 6 miles NNW. of Paderu and under the Yendrika Hill. There is a rock barrier across the river where the stream goes underground to reappear 300 feet lower down.

A few caves are vaguely reported near Sankaram, 18 miles west of Visakhapatnam.

GODAVARI DISTRICT

These are mentioned briefly by Hemingway (1907). Near Peddapuram is a hill called Pandavutametta (the Pandava's Hill) which contains a cave reputed to lead to Rajahmundry.

Four and a half miles south of Rajahmundry is Daulagiri Hill, near Dowlaishweram on the left bank of the Godavari by the railway bridge. In its south side is a cave reputed to lead to Benares!

A cave in the hill at Talluru, 2 miles WNW. of Tuni, contains the image of Talupulamma.

At Tetegunta, 1½ miles SW. of Tuni, is a hill called Parnagala Konda, which contains a cave 300 feet long with two chambers.

On Pattisam Island, on the right bank of the river, is another cave reputed to go to Benares!

Near Jaddanji, 9 miles NE. of Addatigela, is a cave sacred to the Brahman saint Mandavya Mahamuni. Another sacred cave is near Ramavaram, 17 miles NW. of Addatigela, which contains four idols.

Finally, on the Devadu Pinjari Hill near Virabhandrapuram, miles SE. of Addatigela, is a small cave sacred to Virabhandra- swami.

KURNOOL BONE CAVES

These caves are found in the limestone Erramalais Hills, running about 50 miles north to south in the Kurnool district. The nearest town of importance is Banaganpalle. The caves were rediscovered by Newbold (1844), but there is some doubt about which of the many caves he described. They were then forgotten ; Medlicott (1883) quoted a letter from the Kurnool Collector denying the existence of the Billa Surgam Caves. The Collector continued, 6 There is, however, a village called Bilum, 7 miles SE. of Owk in the Koilkuntla taluk, containing some caves . .

Foote (1884), however, rediscovered them, and undertook a hurried excavation.

Billa Surgam lies 3 miles ESE. of Betumcherru on the south side of a narrow valley opening on the west side of the Kurnool basin, at about 78° 15', 15Q 25'. They are three deep, short 4 canons' joined by natural arches above the stream bed which floods in wet weather. The survey by Lydekker (1886) shows that smaller passages continue beyond the excavated large entrances.

There are several rock shelters in other limestone scarps, especially in one north of the hamlet of Kotal.

Near Goorlagootla, on the south side of the great cave ridge, is a cave entered by a very steep 30-foot climb down a rift. The entrance opens to a small terrace facing east, and is reputed by the locals to connect with Billa Surgam ½ mile away. He records, but did not visit, a 'moderate-sized' cave in the Goorlagootla stream valley, and another in a picturesque ravine on the left of the small ghat between Goorlagootla and Betumcherru.

The Yerra Zari Gabbi opens at the base of a great limestone cliff on the east slope of the Yegunta Konda, a small plateau 6 miles NNW. of Banaganpalle. The entrance is hidden by trees in a rugged ravine. There is at least 400 feet of passage with large chambers, arranged in a complicated series which Foote promised to publish later. Unfortunately, I have been unable to trace any such paper.

In the ravine immediately north of Yerra Zari Gabbi are three caves at the Yegunta pagoda, of which two are shrines. To the south of Yerra Zari Gabbi is a group of limestone cliffs containing several rifts with stalactites. At the south end of these cliffs is a pile of limestone blocks from under which emerges a perennial stream.

There is a group of high limestone cliffs on the south side of the second ravine, north of the SE. corner of the Yegunta plateau, near the top of which are one or more small caves. A long ladder is required.

Billam Cave is near the village of that name, 15 miles SSW. of Banaganpalle. It is 6 of some size' and out of it flows a 4 fair- sized ' perennial stream.

Writing later he (Foote, 1916) confirmed his report of 1884, referred to an unexplored large cave, SE. of Badvail near the ghat road into Nellore district, and mentioned a small cave facing east, ½ mile SE. of Billa Surgam.

Cammiade (1926) confirmed Foote's reputed caves at Buggani- palle, 3 miles NE. of Bethamcherla railway station. The following year he (Cammiade, 1927) described some more caves in the area:

Three miles north of Billa Surgam is a group of small caves. They are either in the canyon, close to the north of the Guntakal-Bezwada railway at mile 308, or in the Kistawa Kona, south of the line at mile 308 ½ .

At Gurrum-padinatade, 2 miles south of Bethamcherla, is a very big cave with many ramifications and a stream. The Sinigasivani-Gavi, 3 miles from Bethamcherla, is a series of domed chambers running far into the hill.

CUDDAPAH DISTRICT

Brackenbury (1915) has listed these caves. There are some perennial springs and an unexplored natural cave about a mile from Parnapalle (78° 01', 14° 34'), 55 miles west of Cuddapah.

Near Yerraballa (78° 12', 14° 24'), 40 miles WSW. of Cuddapah, is a waterfall called Panchalingalakona named after the five lingams in the nearby cave. The entrance is approached by a winding path marked by a temple gateway; and the cave is little more than a fissure in the rock.

Another natural cave is a few hundred yards west of the 15-foot diameter pool on the Akkadevatala Konda in the hills separating Paramatakona from Tsakibanda (78° 41's 14° 000, 35 miles SSW. of Cuddapah.

Finally, there are perennial springs feeding a tank within the Kottakota Fort, about 45 miles NE. of Cuddapah.

 

 

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SOUTH INDIA

Cammiade (1926) reported that there were no caves in South India. Foote (1873, 1879) describes a few rock shelters, 2 miles south of Kolatur off the Trichinopoly road, and in a natural amphitheatre in the NE. end of the Alicoor Hills. Glennie (1952a) writes that this latter cave is identical with that described by Krishnaswami (1937), but despite an extensive search I have been unable to trace this work.

 

 

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MYSORE

Horsfield (1851) refers to the 'Caves of Canara', but less inadequate reports exist of caves in the districts of Belgaum and Bellary.

BELGAUM DISTRICT

Foote (1876) reports small caves at the junction of mica and basalt rocks, especially where streams flow in the rainy season. These caves are found in the ravines of the Mahadayi (Madwee) and Tillar, and in the scarps south of the Parwar and Ram Ghats. There is a large cave, covered by thick jungle, on the north side of the Tillar gorge, 2 miles NW. of Kolik (74° 19', 15° 450.

He mentions two circular caverns in iron clay (12-15 feet diameter), and sufficiently deep to require ladders and torches. One is a little to the west of Sadda (wSuda, 74° 09', 15° 39') and the other is one mile NNW. of Holundi (74° 14', 15° 430.

The Barah Pir Cave has one large chamber facing east (150 ft. X60 ft. X 10 ft. high), in a small hill, west of Talewari (74° 23', 15° 18').

BELLARY DISTRICT

Newbold (1838) visited the Sondur Valley and found a cavern, some distance in the jungle from the temple of Comara, 6 miles south of Sondur. He groped along one of the passages for some distance but returned for want of a torch. He continues that the summit of the ridge abounds in caves, some of considerable extent. The one he visited branched into two shafts beyond the entrance, and the locals repute it to extend an incredible distance in the bowels of the mountain.

Francis (1904) was not impressed by this description and claimed that the cave, a dozen yards behind the Kumarsvami temple, ends in a few yards. He mentions several other caves in the area, of which two are called Kuptasvami and Guptasvami.

Foote (1895) described the Mallapan Gudda ridge, 35 miles WSW. of the Sandur Hills, extending 25 miles SW. to the Chinna Hagari River. Beneath the lateritic mass on the conical summit is a small cave, 30 ft. deep. He also reported some 'large cavernous recesses' in the overhanging scarp, SE. of Kannevi- halli.

 

 

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ANDHRA PRADESH

Francis (1940) records natural caves in the bouldery hills around Basarakodu, 6 miles ESE. of Adoni. They were at one time in the Bellary district, but since the boundaries have been redrawn they are now in A.P. One is 6 ft.X 15 ft.X 15 ft. SE. of the village ; another is one mile along the Adoni road. There are others at Kosgi, Peddatumbalam, Bellagallu and Arakallu. They ire most likely to be merely rock shelters.

 

 

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MAHARASHTRA

Ribeiro (1926) visited the caves of Sewri, within the Bombay iily limits. He found a 'large number' of them, but the biggest were only 17 ft.X 10 ft.X9 ft. and 20 ft.X10 ft.X8 ft

 

 

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MADHYA PRADESH

SARGUJA AREA

A few isolated caves are reported in M.P. away from the Kaimur Hills. Ball (1873), while prospecting in the Bisrampur coal-field (now called Ambikapur), noticed that the stream, east of Khargaona (83° 14', 23° 19'), passes underground for some distance, ENE. of the village. The entrance is near the road.

Drake-Brockman (1911) noticed two more caves in this area; one on the Marcha Hill and the other on the Banka. The Marcha Cave contains Mahadani Deo, a male deity; and the Banka Cave contains an unknown demon of the Dano species.

DEAR AREA

Holland (1903) described 4 swallow holes' and underground drainage in the Nimanpur pargana, north of the Nerbarda River, in connection with a water survey. I can find no reference to this area in subsequent publications of the Geological Survey; and the relevant half inch maps of 55 B/NW and 55 B/SW are unhelpful.

PANNA AREA

Medlicott (1860) reported a cave in limestone, 1 ½ miles east of Dergoan (79° 21', 24° 26'). The small entrance in gently rising ground leads to a 15-foot pitch followed by a descending and winding passage and chambers.

BIJAWAR AREA

Bhiakund Cave is marked as a temple, 6 miles east of Dargarwan, on the one inch map of 54 P/7 (1909 edition).

PACHMARHI AREA

The anonymous (1923) tourist guide lists several caves in sandstone near this hill-station, though those that give their names to the town are artefact.

The Marodeo or Sambourne Caves are 2 miles NE. from the Begum of Bhopal's house on the Pipariya road. They are difficult to find, 150 feet long and require a short ladder.

Jata Shankar, a cave under a mass of boulders at the source of the Jambu Dwip, is reached by a foot-path from near the Civil Dispensary.

The Bee Dam stream rises between the Residency and Deep Deen House. It then goes underground to reappear 150 feet lower.

Rich Garh is a natural amphitheatre with a cave-like entrance on the south side, J mile by foot-path from the Long Chukkar.

The Mahadeo Caves are a 50-foot long Hindu shrine, miles from Pachmarhi and 2\ miles from the Long Chukkar.

 

 

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GUJARAT

KATHIAWAR PENINSULA (now Saurashtra—Editor)

There are some interesting caves in the Kathiawar peninsula. Adye (1917) describes the Jambuvanti Bhoira, about 1J miles NW. of Ranawao station on the Porbandar line, approached by a short path from the quarry sidings. A natural shaft, into which a spiral staircase has been cut, descends 20 feet into a tunnel.

He also mentions a 20-foot shaft in the milliolite over ½ mile SW. of Cocachia Dhar, which is reputed to lead to Ghojhara-ka- Bhoira. This latter cave connects with the Cocachia-ka-Bhoira, 6 a considerable distance' to the SE. of Cocachia Dhar.

Watson (1884) reports a cave in a hill near Bhoira, 12 miles NE. of Jasdan.

Lindberg (1949) visited a pot-hole, 2 kilometres from Mangrol and 3-3 kilometres from the coast. He descended a rotting ladder into a passage containing fresh water used for irrigation, through which he had to swim and wade.

 

 

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UTTAR PRADESH

Uttar Pradesh has seen the greatest spelaeological activity in India, and this can no doubt be explained by the proximity of Chakrata to the numerous institutions of Dehra Dun. My own somewhat negative observations in the Doon Valley (Craven, 1969) are not worth repeating here. A letter to Mr. Ravi Prakash, the U.P. Director of Geology and Mining, elicited the following helpful reply:

‘I am sure you are already aware of the small cave which occurs near Dehra Dun at Shahastradhara, and at a place called Vashistgufa, about 14 miles upstream from Rishikesh.

More in the interior a second and more extensive belt of carbonate rocks is seen to extend from Himachal Pradesh . . . into Nepal.

' In south Uttar Pradesh some interesting caves are reported from Banda district. Guptagodavari Cave occurs near the township of Chitrakut. These are formed within massive Vindhyan dolomite. In addition to caves in this area, large crator or well-like structures are also noted to occur, their origin presently being very controversial. A deep natural well known by the name of lanaki Kund occurs near Chitrakut.'

I asked Ashish Chandola, one of my former pupils at the Doon School, to visit the cave at Vashistgufa. He reported that it was like the Robbers' Cave (TL555927), north of Dehra Dun, and I suggest, therefore, that it will be essentially a narrow gorge rather than a cave. , .

The cave at Sahastradhara (TL625943) has been described by Walton (1911) half-way up the precipitous right bank of the Baldi River, in Bagda Dhoran, east of Rajpur. The roof continually drips petrifying water. There is a smaller cave nearby, attended by Brahmans from Nagal. The above map references are taken from the one inch map of 53 J/3 (1942 edition).

An anonymous (1955) report briefly mentions a cave at Chhangru, near Garbiang in the Almora district.

A few caves are vaguely reported from Mussoorie. Blanford (1891) refers to bat caves,, while Fage (1946) mentions of Pholcus from ' the Mussoorie Rift CaveI have seen many rock shelters there; and Glennie, who lived there for many years, tells me that there is little of interest beyond a small cave in the Camels Back.

CHAKRATA

Chakrata is a military hill-station, and permission to visit must be obtained from the Directorate-General of Security, Establishment No 22, c/o 56 APO. Before access was restricted, these pot-holes had been visited by forest officers; but most of the work was done by Glennie, sometimes alone, sometimes with the local hillmen, sometimes with Doon School boys and sometimes with members of the British Spelaeological Association. The relevant maps are half inch sheets of 53F/ NE and 53J/NW. Larger-scale maps have been published.

Six miles NW. of Chakrata as the crow flies is the Bodiar (or Budher) forest rest-house, a convenient centre for the following pot-holes.

Moila Hill (9,058 ft.) is about one mile NNW. of the rest-house. Opposite the Moila Tibba, a small wooden temple, are some earth- filled sinks, while there are four pot-holes straddling the hill. The most northerly is 12 feet wide and 60 feet deep in a wooded swallet 120 feet from the edge of the hilltop. Moila Hole, 40-foot deep trough boulders, is the next pot to the south. This may be synonymous with Moila No. 2 (77° 47' 10", 30° 46' 30") mentioned by Glennie (1969).

Moila Swallet (-Moila No. 1, 77° 47' 15", 30° 46' 35") is the most conspicuous pot-hole oil the hill, and was probably the first to be descended in India by Gleadow (1898) and B. B. Osmaston. Osmaston's visit was published much later by his son (Osmaston, 1969) who later followed in his father's footsteps. There is about 100 feet of passage leading to a 20-foot pitch, and a subsequent 100-foot pitch to the bottom.

Toad Hole (77° 47' 30", 30° 46' 25"), 150 feet from the edge of the hill, was discovered accidentally by R. D. Leakey (1951) while chasing a butterfly. It gets its name from the remains of a toad found embedded in a stalagmite. There is an 80-foot entrance pitch into a chamber (60 ft.X35 ft.) and a second one, 40 ft.X 16 ft.X 10 ft. high. The British Army entered these pots in 1945 using telephone wire for ladders and explosives for flash powder! Despite much digging, they failed to find any new passages.

Frog Pot—A photograph without commentary was published in 1969 by the Cave Research Group. Comparison with the picture by Leakey (1951) suggests that it is of Toad Hole.

The Lohari area, about 2 miles NSE. of the rest-house, has some fissures in the hillside caused by earth movements.

A mile south of the rest-house, and 1,500 feet lower, is Bodhyar Pot, about 50 yards from a buffalo shed. There is a 60-foot daylight pitch into a fissure about 100 feet deep. Gibson (1969) has also visited the place, and commented that it was an ideal place in which to lose undesirable schoolboys! Slit Pot, 90 feet deep, is 250 yards to the west. Between them is a 20-foot wide pot blocked 40 feet down by rotting tree trunks. There are two shallower sinks up the valley, i mile below the main path, east of the rest-house.

About 2 miles WSW. of the rest-house is the Adawa area where in a monsoon sink the Army dug unsuccessfully in 1945. A few hundred yards to the south a precipitous ridge curves round a spur in the fork of two streams which flow into the Tons. Skeleton Pot is in the right-hand stream bed, while Sky Rift is in the forest between the streams.

Much of these notes has been culled from Leakey (1951); and many vertical sections have been published by Glennie (19525) including, without commentary, Shipton's Hole which is about 145 feet deep in two pitches of 30 feet and 100 feet, and Dog Skull Pot, 70 feet deep. .

Other pots in the area recorded by Glennie and not previously published are:

Cedar Pot77° 47' 04", 30° 46' 47",8,725 ft.
Ruckle Pot77° 47' 09", 30° 46' 42",8,775 ft.
Moila Nol77° 47' 14", 30° 46' 37",8,833 ft.
Chohia Cave77° 47' 40", 30° 47' 30",7,500 ft.
(a 'fine cave chamber, with wide entrance, 15-foot stalagmites, no tackle required'. The relevant one inch map is of 53F/13S2.
Busher Pot is marked on Leakeys sketch-map, but he gives no description.

 

About 10 miles NE. of Chakrata is the ruined Buinathach rest- house, near which are three pot-holes in which live the Himalayan swiftlets famous for their edible nests. They have been described by Glennie (1944) and Leakey (1951). The relevant one inch map is of 53J/13S2.

Swiftlet Pot (78° 00' 35", 30° 45' 20", 8,525 ft.) is on Buina Dhar, 60 feet north of the path where it crosses the ridge. There is a smaller entrance on the other side of the path. Both pitches join and enlarge, descending to 155 feet.

Swift Holes (78° 00' 18", 30° 45' 11", 8,575 ft.) are half a mile away ; and the entrances, concealed by vegetation, are about 150 feet apart a little below the north side of the ridge, 200 yards NW. of Point 8,837. The upper hole is 180 feet and the lower 245 feet deep. (Notes prepared by the author from comments scribbled in the margin of the map by Brig. E. A. Glennie are given in the Appendix-Editor.)

‘Surfflet Pot ' is mentioned by Fage (1946), but reference to Glennie (1969) indicates that this is a misprint for Swiftlet Pot.

The fauna collected from these caves beyond Chakrata has been summarized by Glennie (1969).

 

 

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HIMACHAL PRADESH

Glennie (1948, 1969) has reported two caves near Simla. There is the Naldera Cave, altitude about 8,000 feet on the hillside above the Simla-Naldera mule track at 11 miles 5 furlongs from Simla. There is no description of the place, though Conde (1956) has described one female Simlacampa clayae found there by Glennie.

The other cave is about 40 miles from Simla near Kotala in the Baghat Hill State, 3,000 feet above sea level. Glennie tells me that this cave was brought to his attention when the roof collapsed and a child fell in. Other commitments prevented him from doing anything except a cursory inspection of the place, though he says it is a promising area and should yield other caves.

 

 

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KASHMIR

Lydekker (1883) was sent by the Geological Survey to Kashmir ; and his lengthy observations filled one volume of the Memoirs of that institution. The only large caves known to him are in the limestone of the lower Liddar Valley, about a mile above Bawan. One has its entrance 40 feet above ground level and extends well beyond 210 feet. The second is 100 feet above ground level and 48 feet long. Both have stalagmite floors.

Lawrence (1895) describes the Bhumju cave temples, basically natural but enlarged by man, on the left bank of the Liddar river, one mile north of Bawan. The entrance is 60 feet above river level, whence a 50-foot long passage leads to a 10-foot square cave. A larger cave is nearby.

The famous Amarnath ice cave, 12,729 feet above sea level and 35 miles from Pahalgam, was visited by Gervis (1954) among many thousands of pilgrims who came to see the Shiva lingam. The cave (about 150 ft.X 150 ft.X 150 ft.) contains ice formations.

Wadia (1928, 1949) reports a few caverns in the Eocene limestone around Shahpur, 6 miles NE. of Poonch, and some small caves in the great Trias limestone cliffs. There is a small cave in the Triassic limestone near Harwan in the Srinagar area.

Finally, from Kashmir are the writings of two zoologists. Dobson (1872) describes bats from the caves of Bhima Devi, and Blanford (1891) from caves near Matur Nag, north of Islamabad.

 

 

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Conclusions

Despite Lindberg's (1949) gloomy prognosis there is much scope for pot-holing in India. The man who hopes to find the depth of French pot-holes, the length of American caves or the convenience of English ones will unfortunately be disappointed. Since most of the caves I have mentioned are well off the beaten track, the problem arises of where to get the most caving m the limited time available.

Although the pot-holes beyond Chakrata have been known for many years, much work still needs to be done in the way of surveying and water-tracing. The water which flows into these not-holes must reappear somewhere lower down, and investigation of the resurgences may lead to the discovery of more caves. Similarly, a search in the hills of south Assam will not be time wasted. Glennie's comments about the Baghat Hill State ought to be pursued. The Eastern Ghats sounds promising; and the Nimanpur pargana of the Dhar Forest appears to be caverniferous. AH the places I have described ought to be visited agam, but the above is my suggested priority order.

 

 

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Acknowledgements

I wish to thank Mr. Ravi Prakash of Lucknow (U.P.) who has suggested some references on the subject; Brig E. A Glennie of Berkhamsted (Herts, England) who has supphed references and permitted me to quote his previously unpublished observations and the staff of the Brotherton Library, Leeds (England), who have searched for many of the books and journals I have quoted.

 

 

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References

Adve, E H (1917). Reports on the Economic Geology of the Porbandar State,
pp. vii, xxi, 49. The Times Press, Bombay.

Allen, B. C. (1906o). Assam District Gazeteer, 10 (1), 9-10.
_____ (19066). Assam District Gazeteer, 10 (2), 6.

Allsup W (1934)- Notes on Walking around Shillong, pp. 63- 65.

Anon '(1923). Guide to Pachmarhi, pp. 20-35, Nagpur.
-----(1935).District Gazeteers of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh,
------Supplementary Notes and Statistics up to 1931-32 to Vol. 27 (D), Mirzapur District; Appendix, p. xxxix.
(1955). Bulletin of the British Spelaeological Association, No. 43, p.4.

Ball V (1873). Records of the Geological Survey of India, 6, 34.

Blanford, W. T. (1891). The Fauna of British India-Mammalia, pp. 251-355, London.

Brackenbury, C. F. (1915). Madras District Gazeteers (Cuddapah), 1, 212,
215, 216, 225, 232. Cammiade, L. A. (1926). Man in India, 6, 174-181.
(1927). Man in India, 7, 1-12.

Chopard, L. (1916). Bulletin de la Societe Entomologique de France, p. 113.
(1919). Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 6, 381.
(1921). Records of the Indian Museum, 22, 511-527.
(1924). Records of the Indian Museum, 26, 81-92.

Cockburn, J. (18&gffe Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, pp. 125- 126. W
(1884). Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, pp. 141-145.
(1889). Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (new series), 31, 89-97.
(1894). Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 13, 24-25.

Collinge, W. E. (1916). Records of the Indian Museum, 12, 115-128. Conde, B. (1956). Notes Biospeologiques, 11, 101-105. Craven, S. A. (1969). The Junior Statesman, March 15, pp. 10-11. Dobson, G. E. (1872). Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, p. 209. Drake-Brockman, D. L. (1911). District Gazeteers of the United Provinces of
Agra and Oudh, 27, Mirzapur, pp. 103, 107-200, 265, 281, 320.

Fage, L. (1946). Bulletin du Museum National d'His to ire Naturelle (2e serie), 18, 382-388.

Foote, R. B. (1873). Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, 10, 74.
-------(1876). Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, 12, 49, 211, 220.
—-------(1879). Records of the Geological Survey of India, 12, 145.
-----—Records of the Geological Survey of India, 17, 27-34.
(1895). Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, 25, 85, 126.
—-------(1916). Indian Prehistoric and Protohistoric Antiquities-Notes on
their Ages and Distribution, pp. 118, 119, 188-191, Madras.

Francis, W. (1904). Madras District Gazeteers (Bellary), pp. 201, 321.
(1907). Madras District Gazeteers (Yisakhapatnam), 1, pp. 225, 243, 260, 285, 286.

Gervis, P. (1954). This is Kashmir, pp. 172-185, Casseil.

Gibson, J. (1969). Transactions of the Cave Research Group, 11, 85-86.

Gleadow, F. (1898). The Indian Forester, 24, 318-320 (reprinted).
- (1940). Journal of the Mendip Exploration Society, 6, 11-15.

Glennie, E. A. (1944). Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 44,
593-596 (reprinted with additions).(1945). The British Caver, 13, 76-84.
--(1948). Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 47, 777..
(1950). Cave Research Group Newsletter, No. 30, p. 3.
(1951a). Cave Research Group Newsletter, No. 32, pp. 14-16.
---(19516). Cave Research Group Newsletter, No. 33, pp. 8-11.
(1951c). Cave Research Group Newsletter, No. 34, pp. 7-8.
(1951 d). Cave Research Group Newsletter, No. 35, pp. 4-6.
—--------(1952a). Cave Research Group Newsletter, No. 37, pp. 2-3.
----—(1952b). Transactions of the Cave Research Group, 2, 73-93.
-----—(1956). Cave Research Group Newsletter, Nos. 58/59, pp. 9-10.
(1959). Cave Research Group Newsletter, Nos. 79/80, pp. 26-33.
(1969). Transactions of the Cave Research Group, 11, 107-109.

Hemingway, F. R. (1907). Madras District Gazeteers (Godavari), 1, 224, 241, 256, 280, 287, 288.

Holland, T. H. (1903). Geological Survey of India. General Report for 1902- 1903, p. 15.

Horsfield, T. (1851). A Catalogue of the Mammalia in the Museum of the
Hon. East India Company, p. 41, London.

Kemp, S., and Chopra, B. (1924). Records of the Indian Museum, 26, 1-22.

King, W. (1886). Records of the Geological Survey of India, 19, 153-154.

* Krishnaswami, V. D. (1932). Prehistoric Man around Madras, p. 92 (pub.
Indian Academy of Sciences; quoted by Glennie (1952a)).

Lawrence, W. R. (1895). The Valley of Kashmir, pp. 169-170 (O.U.P.).

Leakey, R. D. (1951). Cave Science, 3, 57-60, 65, opp. 70.

Lindberg, K. (1949). Annates de Speleologie, 4, 40-41.
------- (1960). Rassegna Speleologica Italiana, 12, 43-50.

Lydekker, R. (1883). Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, 22, 31.
____ - (1886). Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India: Palaeontologia
Indica (10), 4, 23-58.

Mallet, R. F. (1871). Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, 7, 42.

Manfredi, P. (1954). Notes Biospeologiques, 9, 141-144.

Medlicott, H. B. (1860). Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, 2, 33.
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Vol. A, pp. 357, 377.

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Oldham, T. (1858). Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, 1, 135-138.

O'Malley, L. S. S. (1906). Bengal District Gazeteers (Shahbad), p. 143.

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* Ringwood (?) (1876). Assam Gazette, January 29 (quoted by Allen, 1906a).

* Wadia, D. N. (1928). Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, 51, 289.
____ -(1949). Geology of India, p. 304, Macmillan, 2nd edition revised.
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Appendix

how to find the swift holes (78° 00' 18", 30° 45/ 11", 8,575 ft.) according TO Brig. e. a. Glennie. Use one inch map of 53 J/S2

At 78° 00' 35", 30° 45' 20" is Swiftlet Pot (Alt. 8,525 ft.). This has a 70-foot pitch to a small chamber and a 110-foot pitch to a large chamber.

Go along the path from the Swiftlet Pot to the small fields at Marawakhesa Chak. From this point take the goat track leading west up the spur. Continue on the track to the spur, then slant diagonally up the hillside, passing just behind two or three small fissures (?) on the grassy slope, and reach the crest of the ridge close to these. If you strike it right, you will find on dropping about 3 feet down on the wooded side of the crest a track which drops steeply west then turns sharply to NE. by a tree and leads back to the small spur which runs just below where you left the crest. The track skirts Upper Swift Hole which is on a flat place on top of the spur, a large hole about 6 feet in diameter.

To find Lower Swift Hole, go down the spur about 30 feet vertical and then swing left (i.e. west) off the spur and the hole is just at the bottom about 30 feet away from the crest of the spur. Be careful about approaching Lower Swift Hole from above as the upper lip overhangs it and you come upon it unexpectedly. As a check on your position, about 50 yards or so further west is a small cliff of rock.

The 243-foot pitch of Lower Swift Hole is clear and there is a large chamber below.

The 178-foot pitch of Upper Swift Hole is in the narrow end of a joint crack. About 30 feet down is a chock stone on which the ladder piles. After that the ladder is usually within 6 inches of one face and a large part of the way one can rest ad lib. pressing the ladder against one face with one's boot and one's back against the other side, i.e. a nice chimney but the rock is smooth. It opens up a bit at the bottom, but it is a small place of no interest. I am pretty sure it is a choked aven into Lower Swift Hole chamber.

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