STRUCTURAL STUDIES IN THE CENTRAL HIMALAYA, 1936

ARNOLD HEIM

Unlike most Himalayan expeditions, the chief aim of which is to climb, the object of the Swiss Himalayan Expedition was principally a scientific one, namely a geological investigation of the Central Himalaya. The leader, having devoted about twenty years to the study of the Alps, at last found an opportunity of making a comparative study of the Himalaya. It is well known that at the beginning of this century it was discovered that the main structure of the Alps consists of enormous overthrust sheets piled upon each other. In the border region of the Himalaya, thrust sheets have since been found by the excellent geologists of the Geological Survey of India, Pilgrim, Wadia, Auden, West, and others. However, the tectonic position of the central part of the Great Himalaya remained practically unknown. At the end of last century, Griesbach and von Krafft, of the Geological Survey of India, surveyed geologically the mountain ranges on the south side, along the Tibetan border. The latter published a fine study of the so-called exotic blocks of Malla Johar. He concluded that these blocks were the result of huge volcanic outbursts coming from the Tibetan side. Nobody seems to have objected to this conclusion, nor has this problematic region been visited since by other geologists, to say nothing of the adjoining Tibetan highland, which remained absolutely obscure.

Our expedition is not to be compared in size with the great expeditions of recent years; it was only a small and modest one, consisting of three Swiss members at the beginning, soon reduced to two, for quite early W. Weckert, the well-known alpinist of Zurich, had to be carried back to Ranikhet to be operated on for appendicitis. Thanks especially to the generous support of the Swiss Academy of Sciences, of which we are members, we were well equipped for our purpose. Our idea was confirmed that a small expedition, the members of which are able to live cheaply on food bought from the local people, is proportionally more efficient than a large one consisting of numerous members and carrying all kinds of tinned provisions. Before us this had been already proved by Mr. E. Shipton, whom we had the pleasure of meeting in upper Garhwal.

Dr. August Gansser, a young geologist of extraordinary talent, and also a member of the Himalayan Club, accompanied the writer. We flew by KLM airways in three days from Rome to Jodhpur. For the geologist the most interesting and beautiful part of this wonderful journey is the Persian Gulf and the Strait of Hormuz. In this desert region, the young anticlines of Tertiary strata, with numerous diapyrs piercing them, are magnificently exposed.³ From Jodhpur we proceeded by Delhi and Calcutta to the region of Darjeeling, where we studied the gneiss and its reversed position above the Daling series. The foothill region east of Darjeeling stretching into Assam also proved to be of special interest. The observations there confirmed the idea that the so-called 'Great Boundary Fault', along the northern boundary of the Siwaliks, is to be regarded as a relief thrust, and that the Siwaliks are not reversed. This is just what thirty years before was found by the writer along the northern contact of the Swiss Alps with the Tertiary conglomerates. The Siwaliks thus, after being erected, were attacked by erosion before being covered by the Himalayan thrust-masses.

 

We then accepted a cordial invitation by Mr. J. B. Auden, of the Geological Survey of India, to accompany him for a week in his region between the Ganges and Mussoorie. It was a special chance to become introduced to the border formations of the Central Himalaya and their structure.

Our main task was to study a cross-section of the Central Himalaya in ^Cumaun, Almora being the place for the start of a six months' excursion on foot. From Askot (62C)⁴ we followed the magnificent transverse section of the Kali river along the border of Nepal. Garb- yang (62B), a village at 10,320 feet, close to the Nepalese boundary, was made our first head-quarters. From here we made excursions to the Tibetan border, crossing also a corner of north-western Nepal. A region of huge mountains was found which hitherto had remained practically unknown.³ On the north-east side of Nampa (23,399 feet, 62B),⁴ Gansser discovered glaciers thrust upon each other like those of the Karakoram described by Dr. Visser. With the aid of Atten- hofer's folding skis, we climbed two hitherto unknown peaks of 19,000 and 20,000 feet on the Nepal-Tibet border. During bad- weather spells, which commenced in the middle of May, we collected beautiful marine fossils at an elevation of 17,000 feet, especially ammonites of hitherto unknown Triassic horizons.

Farther to the north-west, at Kuthi (62B), we made our second head-quarters. This is the highest village in the Kumaun section of the Great Himalaya and lies at 12,330 feet. In the region we located and followed several overthrust masses piled upon each other, showing that the geological sections of Griesbach require important corrections. As we were making plans to climb Shangtang (21,262 feet, 62B), the highest peak in the neighbourhood, the monsoon started on the 21 st June. Then an unexpected opportunity was presented to join two sheep-drivers on the way to Kailas in Tibet. Gansser, on his own responsibility, left the writer for a short spell of twelve days, and returned with most valuable geological discoveries.

Notwithstanding the three terrible monsoon months, we traversed several high passes, such as the Shiala, the Lebong, and the Ralam, to the thunder of avalanches. The last-named was particularly difficult, and by it we reached Milam. A fortnight's excursion from here gave us the opportunity of studying the exotic region of the Kiogars, which were mapped geologically thirty-eight years ago by von Krafft. This is the most problematic region of the whole Himalaya. Already von Krafft had discovered numerous limestone blocks with rich faunas of Permian, Triassic, and Liassic age in and above the Gretaceous flysch. Their facies being entirely different from that of the corresponding formations of the normal Himalayan folds, they were called exotic. Being mixed with basic igneous rocks, von Krafft concluded that the exotic blocks of Malla Johar were thrown out by enormous volcanic explosions in Tibet. According to our observations these exotic rocks not only occur in the form of blocks, but also cover uncounted square miles of mountain country, and are thrust upon the normal Himalayan folds. Indeed, Gansser found traces of their root in Tibetan country. The exotic blocks may thus be regarded as a tectonic phenomena similar to that of the so-called Klippen on the northern border of the Alps in Switzerland.

that Api is a double peak, the higher point of which (23,399 feet) stands half a mile north-east of the lower (23,287 feet). The observations of Colonel Tanner's assistant Rinzin show another peak called Ningru (23,143 feet) rising between the two peaks of Api, and it is more reasonable to assume that Api and Ningru are alternative names employed, perhaps in different localities, for the same snowy mass. According to the observations of Tanner's assistants Nampa is a double peak also, the two summits being 2 miles apart. The higher Nampa is 4 miles east of the higher Api.'

The names on the Survey of India maps are in accord with Colonel Tanner's expressed views, and the surveyors did not correct them during the survey of Nepal from 1925 to 1927. It seems probable that the natives in different localities are not very clear themselves as to which is which; and it would therefore be wiser if European geographers would retain the names given on the maps.—Ed.]

 

Returning by the Kungri Bingri and Anta Dhura⁵ passes to Milam, which village we intended to make our third head-quarters for further studies of the surroundings, and especially of the Milam glacier, we were forced to return at once to Almora by order of the Deputy Gommissioner. This was in consequence of Gansser's trip into Tibetan territory without permission. This is not the place to discuss the rights and wrongs of the incident. On the way back to Almora, under most unfavourable snow conditions, Gansser crossed Traill's pass between Nanda Devi and Nanda Kot.

 

Being forbidden to return beyond the 'inner line' of the Almora district, we made new plans for Garhwal. Meanwhile, during the second half of September, the weather gradually cleared, and it became splendid in October. After reaching Badrinath (53N), we ascended the Bhagat Kharak glacier and climbed the mountains on its northern side. Camping for three days at 17,000 feet we enjoyed the finest views of the surrounding peaks, especially of the Badrinath group, the highest of which are 23,420 and 23,190 feet. Gansser climbed alone by an ice-crest a sharp unnamed peak of about 20,000 feet and took a panoramic view from the summit. The temperature at 17,000 feet was about io° G. below zero in the early morning. Geologically this region was interesting for its intrusive rocks, among which a white tourmaline granite was conspicuous.

After descending and making a short study of the holy Satopanth glacier, we returned to Badrinath and thence to Almora by Ranikhet. The only tasks that remained were to complete our geological observations in the border region of Almora and Naini Tal, and to photograph the magnificent panorama from Binsar, north of Almora, which may be regarded as the finest and widest along the whole sub- Himalayan region. Nanda Devi, the highest mountain, is in the middle of the panorama.

Our studies of the glaciation resulted in the determination of the terminal moraines of the pleistocene glacial period. In two of the main transverse valleys we found them at about 6,560 feet above sea- level, while the corresponding present glacier snouts are between 12,150 and 13,150 feet. The pleistocene glaciation was thus much more important in the Central Himalaya than on Minya Gongkar in Chinese Tibet, but much less extended than in the Alps, where glaciers not only filled the narrow Alpine valleys but flooded out over the plain.

The glaciers to-day seem to be in retreat. They are intensely covered with morainic material and are partly swimming upon their ground moraines, incapable of removing their own scree material. This is glacial conservation, as opposed to glacial erosion, the theory so popular among prominent German geographers some twenty- five years ago. In sharp contrast to the action of the lazy glaciers is the furious work of the rivers. The recent accentuation of water erosion, shown by the convex shape of the valley slopes and gorges and by the removal of sub-recent fan deposits, confirms the actual rising of the Himalaya at the present time, which has been found in the north-western Himalaya by Dainelli, de Terra, Wadia, Sahni, Misch, and others.

Much time will be needed to work out our observations and collections of rocks and fossils. Chemical analyses and microscopic sections of the rock samples will be made and studied. Some of the fossils may have to be sent to specialists for determination. A book with numerous plates of sections, panoramas, maps, and photographs is in course of preparation. It may convince students that the Himalaya is the result of a huge flood of the earth's crust directed from the Angaraland of Central Asia towards the Indian Plain, and that this gigantic movement of the crust has not yet come to rest. The Himalaya thus, in the view of the geologist, is like a living organism.

Perhaps I may add a word on our views regarding climatic conditions for climbing and high mountain work. Most expeditions are accustomed to leave Europe in the spring and hope to reach the summits just before the break of the monsoon. Failures and catastrophes have sometimes resulted. I may mention the German Nanga Parbat expedition of 1934, the Mount Everest expedition of 1936, the French Karakoram expedition of 1936, which were all surprised by early monsoons. Bauer in Sikkim and the Anglo-American Nanda Devi expedition of this year chose the second part of the monsoon, climbing in August or later. Their successes seem to have been due partly to short fine-weather spells, partly to the fact that the rain and snow clouds were finally left below them. Indeed, on the 29th August, when Nanda Devi's summit was reached, we were in the neighbourhood amid fog and heavy rain.

A third class of successes in climbing is attached to the fine weather of autumn after the monsoon. Thus Minya Gongkar, 24,900 feet, was climbed by the Americans Burdsall and Moore on the 28th October 1931, while Nanda Kot, this year, was reached by the Japanese on the 5th October, after more than a month's work above their base camp.

The writer, having led expeditions in Chinese Tibet and in the Himalaya during three or four seasons from spring to winter, and having crossed several Tibetan passes of from 16,000 to 17,000 feet in the middle of winter, has come to the conclusion that another year he would start in August or September, in order to be ready for the highest work at the end of September or the beginning of October. For topographical and other scientific work, despite increasing cold, the clear months of October and November seem to be the best in the year.

Assuming night temperature of 10° C. below zero at 17,000 feet, as measured by us on the 4th October, and assuming an average decrease of 1°C. for every 6oo-foot rise, the night temperature 12,000 feet higher on Mount Everest would be about 30° C. below zero, roughly —22⁰ F. Such cold would be more bearable with little or no wind than a temperature 10 or 20 degrees higher in a strong wind. We thus come to the conclusion that an attempt on Mount Everest at the end of September or beginning of October, with the help of half a dozen Alpine ski porters, should be considered.¹

Reviewing all our interesting experiences, we shall not forget the extreme kindness and help shown to us by the Geological Survey of India, and also by the native inhabitants of the Himalayan mountains.

 

Height: 6,000 metres . . .— 6-8

7,000 „—12-9

8,000 „. . . . —19-5

9,000 „.... —26-3

[See below, The Problem of Mount Everest, pp. 110-26, for a further discussion on this question.—Ed.]

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